The Value of Life

Generation after generation of societies change as time goes on. Maybe not so much the society itself, but the people in it do. The value of life now differs depending on the different kinds of experiences people go through. We will all have different obstacles in our life, but the way we get through them and live to tell the tale is the way life should be valued for. In It’s not about the bike: My journey back to life, an autobiography by Lance Armstrong, he is a great inspiration to America for winning one of the most grueling sporting events on the face of the earth, the Tour de France. A 2,290 – mile race through the hills and mountains of France on a bicycle. Yet this is still not what puts value into life, through his eyes. Lance was diagnosed with testicular cancer at the age of 25. As tough as it is to fight a cancer as severe as that, he says it was his profession that helped him fight it. His profession taught him how to fight and compete against all odds and obstacles. A near death experience is what made Lance ask himself, â€Å"If I live, who is it that I intend to be?† This is where I truly believe people start contemplating what the value of life is. Another example of an obstacle people sometimes go through in order to assign value to life is suicide. The world famous Shakespeare has a play precisely on the basis of this issue. In the soliloquy of Hamlet he is a man who doesn’t know whether to live or commit suicide, but carefully analyzing the aftermath of suicide and what comes after death is what makes the character have a change of heart. Again we see that what we go through in life, the obstacles we face and overcome is what we use to assign value to life. To further conclude this statement, the way society should assign value to life is the way we have been doing it for years, by basing it on the different experiences people go through and letting each individual have a say in what they think the value of life is. Everyone’s opinion is different, but that is the beauty of it. From all the differences it creates some of the greatest stories ever told. That is how value should be assigned. The Value of Life The Value of Life The value of human life is still a mystery and we as a society is still trying to figure it out. During early times, life was not valued at all. People were being turned into slaves and treated like nothing. In today’s world though, we base the value of life by our achievements, one’s past, or the salary one receives. This shouldn’t be the way we value one’s life. We as a society cannot assign a value on one’s life. Money cannot buy happiness.In the article â€Å"What Is a Life Worth† by Amanda Ripley, she argues that nowadays we base life on money. â€Å"The courts started to put a dollar value on a life-after death† (â€Å"What Life is Worth†, stanza 1). I do not agree with this because people expect money after a death occurs to a loved one. No amount of money can fill in the void of a loss someone is enduring. William Shakespeare, one of the most famous and influential writer, argues his point of view of hu man life in â€Å"Hamlet’s Soliloquy. Shakespeare uses a suicidal character, Hamlet, to show that the only time we value life is when something bad is happening. Also to show that life is full of misfortunes. Both Shakespeare and Ripley seem to be suggesting that life is only valued by death. Death opens our eyes and makes us cherish what we have. This sounds very sad, but it’s very true. The government doesn’t seem to care about human life. Cheri Sparacio, the widow of Thomas Sparacio, exclaims, â€Å"The government is not taking any responsibility for what it’s done.This was just one screw up after another. † The government tries to replace loss with money. How can one’s life value be bought? Nowadays, one way life is valued is by money. 6 On the other hand, Lance Armstrong believes that death is not an option. That the value of life should be cherished and taken for granted because your life can end any second. In the excerpt â€Å"Itâ €™s Not About the Bike: My Journey Back to Life† by Lance Armstrong with Sally Jenkins, it talks about Lance

Are Science and Religion in Conflict? Essay

Indeed,a conflict does exist between science and religion however the conflict is based on the lack of acceptance and vast misconceptions which members of either side are unwilling to let go of. The conflict between science and religion exists because there is a lack of congruence between the results achieved through scientific discovery and the beliefs required by a religion to follow. This has led to the formation of two extremes i. e. either accept faith and the doctrines required by faith to be observed or accept the rational methodologies of science. In an article published by â€Å"The Atlantic†, the author is of the opinion that solving the riddle that creates the conflict between science and religion is of utmost importance for the current generation. This is because of the reason that these two schools of thought are the most influential forces and guide the way we live our lives (Alfred). Science and religion since their inception have been in a state of continuous development. However this development has been in the opposite direction i. e. nitially science studied the literature provided by religion however with the development of scientific research, certain religious concepts remained unproven because they were considered â€Å"Abstract† by science. This has led to people accepting one side to be true and the other false (Alfred). There is a conflict between science and religion however this is because of the fact that people are hesitant to study both and stick to one side. This has led to the permanent h ousing of misconceptions in the minds of people and is adding fuel to the fire i. e. increasing the conflict between the two ways of life. The major reason behind the conflict between science and religion is the lack of acceptance of conclusions reached by either science or religion regarding a particular matter. If science put more light on the topic under discussion, religious scholars would deny those facts based on the grounds that the research is â€Å"blasphemous† and contradicts basic religious principles. An article by the â€Å"Times† magazine states the Christian Church and other religions including Islam focus on key aspects of human creation such as the possession of a soul by every human being or the miracles performed by saints and â€Å"Men of God†. Science however focuses on new ways of quantifying and measuring human evolution; both the concepts create a conflict (Dan, 2006). Science has been able to prove the physical existence of emotions such as passion, anger by locating it in different parts of the brain. This contradicts with the principle followed by most religions regarding the presence of a soul in every human and how that soul is free from bodily functions etc. However acceptance of this is denied by religious scholars based on the grounds that the concept of the Afterlife is fundamental to most religions and the concept of the soul is greatly in congruence with the Afterlife (Dan, 2006). Scientific research should not be viewed as a threat to the fundamentals of a religion rather the studies should be perceived as being insightful i. e. the research further clarifies religious concepts rather than denouncing them. There are certain driving factors that govern the existence and acceptance of the conflict between science and religion. Upbringing, Education and Social behavior are some of the factors that lead to people in both the scientific and religious communities to accept that there indeed is a rift between science and religion. In an article by Elaine Howard of Rice University and Jerry Z. Park of Baylor University, they provided the results of a study they carried out which involved the selection of 21 American scientists who were considered to be among the elite of the time. They studied their attitude towards religion and deduced that all scientists i. e. hether a naturalist or social scientist, have different levels of acceptance towards the conflict that exists between science and religion. The acceptance is affected by their culture and extent of religious practice (Ecklund& Park, 2009). Since everyone needs something to believe in, scientists who do not belong to a strict religious background readily accept the conflict since they have devoted their life to one particular school of thought. This p erception is formed after extensive research based on rational thinking and seeking proof of everything which makes scientists so skeptical about religious beliefs. Among scientists however there is a lack of acceptance towards a religion even if he/she is a believer. This is because of the perceived pressure they would receive if their peers in the scientific community were to discover this fact (Elaine, 2010). The only way to resolve the conflict is to accept religious diversity as well as the free discussion of scientific concepts without being judged as being blasphemous. It is through this open discussion that the misunderstandings that exist between scholars of both extremes be cleared. The ways the scientific concepts are taught in schools are one of the major causes of the conflict. Since the teachers do not have clear knowledge and understanding of the scientific concepts, they pass on inadequate information to the students attending. In an article named â€Å"First Year College Students’ Conflict with Religion and Science† issued by the Georgia State University, the author tells us that it is in the human nature to perceive oneself to be better than the rest. The general public tends to interpret and create their own perceptions regarding scientific concepts and religious beliefs. The self-interpretations lead to misconceptions which are major cause of the rift that exists between science and religion (Martin, 2008). The schools and teachers within those schools teach in a manner that fixes and restricts the brain of the student to think beyond what is thought. The rigid concepts become permanent with the passage of time which leads to the rejection of anything other than the closely held concepts. Science and religion develop over time, sometimes even complimenting each other. If a clear understanding of the advancements would not be obtained, there would always be room for misinterpretations. Therefore to remove the conflict at an elementary stage, teachers should encourage students to interpret scientific research however they should know what is right and what is not in order to correct the misconceptions when they arise. An Evangelist is a person who preaches faith based on his or her own perception about the beliefs fundamental to the faith. Christian evangelists have always been skeptical towards scientific concepts as well as theological theories about the creation of the world. Amos Yong carried out an analysis of various literary works related to the explanation of the conflict paradigm between science and religion. The findings were summarized in the article named â€Å"Science and Religion: Introducing the Issues, Entering the Debates – A review essay† and focused primarily on discovering ways to align the methods of the church with scientific methodologies (Yong, 2011). The study identified various conceptual frameworks that could be adopted which would align the thought process of the evangelist with scientific methodologies. Other measures that could be adopted include targeting the people lower in the hierarchy at the church. These people could be taught the concepts of science and how science can better explain religion (Yong, 2011). The only way to resolve the conflict that exists for evangelists is to align their religious beliefs with rational scientific methods. Since an evangelist is a strict believer in faith, the beliefs would always be fundamental however better scientific knowledge can help bridge the differences. Science is based on methods and the rationale behind every phenomenon. Religion however on the other hand requires the believer to keep faith in the fundamental principles. Both present a different picture of the same thing and it is this difference in perception that has developed a conflict between science and religion. Science and Religion are two sides of the same coin. These two schools of thoughts add to each other rather than diverging. Religious concepts such as morality can be better understood through scientific research which helps understand and adhere to religion better. There is a connection of knowledge between science and religion which if strengthened is in the favor of the future of the human race. Science and religion have a point where the two schools of thoughts converge. One of the points is quality of being spiritual. Although scientists work on the basis of rationality, they still have a spiritual side which allows them to keep faith while exploring the horizons of science and reasoning. In an article titled â€Å"Science vs. Religion: What Scientists Really Think†, the author Elaine Ecklund states that even atheists have a certain level of spirituality within them. The spirituality may not necessarily be associated with keeping faith however there is a curiosity regarding the origination and formation of our plant and existence (Elaine, 2010). The spiritual side within scientists is promoted by their upbringing and education. The spiritual side makes them interested in religious beliefs. Through their scientific approach and belief in religious concepts, it makes it easier for them to focus on scientific research and proving religious concepts to be accurate (Elaine, 2010). Therefore spirituality leads to a better scientific reasoning approach to be adopted. Through religious involvement scientific research can be refined and complex questions can be answered. Morality and reality go hand in hand. Morality is the set of values and attitudes that are generally acceptable by a particular society for a particular moment in time. Religion requires a greater focus on displaying moral behavior. Morality can be better displayed by understanding reality and how it is affected by moral thinking. Morality is required by religion whereas reality is explained by science proving that there is a deeper link rather than a conflict. Through scientific reasoning we are able to deduce the right way to behave in a society. These studies can help assess what moral behavior is. The article â€Å"Religion vs. Science† outlines the scientific efforts to better understand moral behavior which helps us adhere to religious principles in a better way (Honner, 1994). Science is able to study all factors that affect behavior including societal norms, environmental conditions and personal feelings. By quantifying morality, we are able to develop a better understanding of what constitutes morality. This indicates that the relationship between science and religion is one of clarification rather than a source of conflict (Honner, 1994). Therefore rather than thinking about a conflict being in existence, we should follow the results of scientific research and studies to better clarify religious beliefs. Through scientific research we are able to uncover and understand the abstract concepts that religion defines. Queries about our existence can be answered by a careful examination of religious concepts complimented with a thorough scientific analysis. In an article name God, creation, science, religion: the conflicts by Tom Chivers, the author tells us that scientist in order to deduce the actual age of the Earth moved to religious transcripts appearing in the Bible. Although the Bible did not provide dates however did contain information on the characteristics of the people at the time. This was a major input in the scientific breakthrough (Tom, 2009). The scientific declarations cannot be denied as they have been institutional to the development of the knowledge and understanding regarding the universe. By further considering the importance of religion we would come across certain questions that have been yet to be answered by scientific research. Through this connection we can uncover various mysteries concerning the universe and everything within it (Tom, 2009). People should develop a thorough understanding of the concepts of both extremes. Through this understanding we would be able to develop a much better connection between science and religion and resolve all mysteries which would give us a better understanding of who we are and why we exist. Referring to the first counter argument, it states that science and religion converge because a level of spirituality exists between the followers of the two extremes. The argument is refuted by the original thesis stating that although the spiritual level does exist however this would not lead to the convergence of ideas arising within the two schools of thoughts. The reason behind it is the fact that there is a lack of acceptance of conclusions by scholars of both the extremes leading to a never ending conflict. Referring to the second counter argument, it states that science and religion add to each other in way that science leads to a better understanding of moral behavior which is a pre-requisite for religious believers. However the original thesis refutes this argument by saying that although the concepts add to each other however there are vast misconceptions in the minds of the followers of both science and religion. These misconceptions come in the middle and cause the conflict to extend rather than reaching a resolution point. Referring to the final counter argument, it states that there is no conflict between the fields because religious beliefs and knowledge acts as a basis of scientific research and discovery. This argument is challenged by the original thesis in a manner that although this can be the case however people classify themselves as being either religious or scientific. Due to this classification, the connection between science and religion cannot be established.

Go Green

You hear the word recycling or going green many time trough the years. It is such an important environmental issue and yet, not much is done about this issue. If you ask a random person on the street what they think about recycling, they would say â€Å"it’s good for the environment. † Even though there are so many things said about going green or recycling, not much is done. Recycling can help the environment and we the creatures all around the world.Recycling is important for the environment because recycling reduces greenhouse gas issue and helps stem the dangers of global climate change. If people do not recycle, there would be habitat loss for the many species of magnificent creatures that accompanying us. Recycling reduces the need for raw materials so that the rainforests can be preserved. Possibly a more important reason to recycle is because it will reduce pollution risks in our society.The most obvious way is by keeping waste out of landfills, which introduces contaminants and other toxins into groundwater systems. Recycling also keeps materials out of incinerators, which pollutes the air and create severe ash residue, which is very dangerous for the health. Furthermore, reduce financial output in the economy, making products from raw materials costs much more than if they were made from recycled products. What can you do to recycle? Here are three easy steps you can do.Firstly, you can separate plastic, aluminum, glass, and paper, into different container or bags. Secondly, you can turn the water off when you’re not using it. Thirdly, you can switch to energy- efficient light bulb, which saves you money. In conclusion, Recycling is one of the best ways for you to have a positive impact on the world in which we live. Recycling is important to both the natural environment and us. By doing at least three things can help the planet which we stand.

State sovereignty 'led inexorably to the Holocaust and atomic warfare' Essay

State sovereignty 'led inexorably to the Holocaust and atomic warfare' - Essay Example Two major historical traumas that occurred in the 20th century – the Holocaust and atomic warfare, both involved countries that exercised its full sovereign rights which led many nations to the Second World War. Around six million Jews died in the hands of the Nazi, a political party which represented the legal government of Germany in 1933 (Florida Center for Instructional Technology, 2011). On the other hand, over 200,000 Japanese civilians died when the United States aircraft dropped atomic bombs in the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki -- a decisive action of the United States to put an immediate end of war and prevented further loss of lives (The Atomic Archive, 2011). Looking back at the scale of atrocities done by totalitarian and militarist governments over the past century, the role and obligation of the world community to intervene in the state affairs during humanitarian crises confronts a crucial challenge to the idea of state sovereignty. In today’s globalized community, the act of a state or group of states to use force in order to protect the lives of people other than their own citizen defies the main tenant on the codification of state sovereignty – that is the right of a state to exercise its ultimate authority within its territory. Viewpoint & Assumption Can the catastrophic events of the Holocaust and atomic warfare be attributed to the absolute exercise of state sovereignty? To examine this position, a careful analysis of the sovereignty principle and an exploration of the historical events are needed in order to establish the claim. This is rightly done so, because to say that the concept of state sovereignty contributed to the escalation of these catastrophic events of the Second World War is to recognize the justification of humanitarian intervention – the deliberate action of the international community to prevent human rights abuses of governments to its citizen. In this regard, the paper argues that while humanitarian intervention during the Second World War could have prevented the violence of authoritarian states, most nations could not readily commit to wage war because of its social, political and economic cost. The intervention itself can be rightfully justified; because the moment both Japan and Germany entered to war, it already submitted its sovereignty and challenged other nation’s sovereign rights. However, the international community is hesitant in intervening with authoritarian states not only because of social and economic implications of war, but also because no interest was at stake for these nations. The same issue persists on the humanitarian intervention or the lack of it, done in Libya, Syria, and Rwanda. To establish this viewpoint, a historical background of the Second World War events and the prevailing belief about the exercise of sovereignty will provide a better context for the argument. Then, a detailed discussion on the basic principles of sta te sovereignty will establish a clearer understanding for the idea of sovereign right. Following this discussion is the careful examination of the social, political, and economic reasons for the indecision and delay to intervene with German and Japanese powers. The Parallel Events of WWII While it may be argued that the holocaust and the atomic warfare are two distinct events that led to the loss of millions of lives, the main idea is that Germany and Japan were both authoritarian states that touted its some of its people to commit human rights violence during the Second World War. Hitler ordered the extermination of Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and the mentally challenged while the Imperial Japanese Army under Emperor Hirohito committed killings against millions of civilians and prisoners of war in China, Korea, and other Asian countries. While these atrocities were committed, it must be noted that the social and economic conditions of major nations such as the United States,

Jet Blue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Jet Blue - Essay Example The resources are many in the JetBlue atmosphere, including the opportunities brought on by the shareholders invested in JetBlue, JP Morgan or LiveTv, the wholly owned JetBlue Subsidiary. It seems as though JetBlue has access to many perks based on affiliated companies and partnerships, and work hard to make new partnerships available to learn about and for those who own a company, to participate in. This directly reflects the internal environment of JetBlue, which is based on the strengths of the business being interconnected and in touch with the consumer and corporate strata. At the same time, the website isn’t wholly specific about what resources are directly used in forming the company or its core values, but JetBlue places a lot of emphasis on confidentiality, so it isn’t a huge surprise that this information isn’t readily volunteered. The Capabilities of JetBlue seem staggering, as the company has only been around ten years and already they’ve become a leading provider of commercial aviation services. Along with being capable of making more corporate alliances and to grow as a business, JetBlue also has the capability to serve as an example of a progressive company environment, as shown in the company’s â€Å"Code of Ethics,† community relations and â€Å"Code of Business Conduct.† These points of reference on the website emphasize diversity, company loyalty and a charitableness to the human condition that goes far beyond expectation. For example, there is a specific page on the JetBlue website where you can apply to be a part of the â€Å"we care† program, an opportunity for charities to submit to be on the website and to have customers donate to their causes, if the causes are in alignment with JetBlue’s core values. The core competencies of JetBlue seem to be in order, as well. The JetBlue Airways â€Å"Customer Bill of Rights† outlines the

Health Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Health Management - Essay Example In relation with this, it has been noticed that several organisations including the health care organisations have introduced leadership training facilities which intend to develop leadership qualities among the consulting psychiatrists. However, as per the statement presented by Raelin (2003), â€Å"Most leadership training that is being conducted off?site is ill?advised because the intent of most of this training is to put leadership into people, such that they can transform themselves and their organisations on their return†. Based on this statement, it can be argued that most of the programmes of leadership training that are being conducted by the corporate off-sites, such as in the healthcare divisions are considered to be ill-advised (Raelin, 2003). The objective of this paper is to critically evaluate the effectiveness of the off-site leadership programmes that are conducted by the organisations, especially those related with healthcare service rendering activities such as that of consulting psychiatrists. In this regards, the discussion henceforth will intend to examine the aforementioned statement connoted by Raelin (2003) considering the point of view of a psychiatrist. A Broad View to Leadership Training Programmes Leadership training requirements were initially noticed by corporate entities and therefore a significant degree of impression can be identified in the approaches which apparently exhibit the interests of such concerns. The corporate business organisations have been noticed to expend billions of dollars per annum on the training programmes conducted to enhance leadership skills amid professionals. However, with the passing time, leadership approaches conducted by these business entities became to be extensively indulged with human psychology and human responses. Rather than the sole motive to direct or rather instruct the subordinates, the role of leaders extended to identify the rudiments of a particular individual’s psychol ogical framework and thereby motivate the individuals toward the attainment of a particular objective (Durose, 2011). From a consultant psychiatrist’s point of view, it becomes apparent that the philosophy of leadership training, in the modern day context, essentially deals with building up human relations focusing more over intrinsic motivation rather than suppressing the subordinates with external instructions (Royal College of Psychiatrists, 2012). However, with such broad perspective, it is quite likely that the implementations of leadership training programmes, concerning the enhancement of individual leadership skills can emerge to be a challenging task. As from the consultant psychologist’s point view, it is indeed a tough task to identify the psychological order of an individual’s thinking and likewise, maximise their potentialities to develop as leaders along with expanding the capacity of those individuals to serve the community at large (Alimo-Metcalf e, 2010). This particular aspect can be directly related with the argument made by Raelin (2003) that leadership

Southwest Airlines Internet Exercise Research Paper

Southwest Airlines Internet Exercise - Research Paper Example They have renewed their relationship with Varolii Corporation to promptly reach customer, employees, and pilots with crucial and timely information. The third aspect is their most famous one and that is low fares, for they provide customers with flexible and different packages, which includes budgeted fares for a particular destination and they also offers a weekly saving program where they constantly inform customers on new low-cost deals regarding hotel, car and air service. Â  These aforementioned factors are also a basic element of management strategy, for the employee and staff of the firm are managed in such a way that they are motivated to provide customers with all three elements. Moreover, in the face of rising fuel prices, security issues and customer expectations, Southwest has employed the three elements to keep their ranking in the top ten best US airlines. Â  As to the last part, I have traveled in the Southwest Airlines and, since I had traveled to urban cities, the experience was good and satisfying for me. Regarding other airlines, such as Emirates the quality, speed and service are very appropriate and excellent, however, their major drawback is their high cost, which makes them inaccessible to price sensitive customers.

Fredricksons various models in the story of Stephen Cruz by Studs Essay

Fredricksons various models in the story of Stephen Cruz by Studs Terkel - Essay Example For Stephen Cruz, who was taught and brought up by his father to work hard in whatever he does and avoid taking things that he does not deserve, is seen in the story being told to fall in the line and learn the way of doing business as the dominant and powerful group does. The Civil Acts of 1964 is used in this story to signify the way policies and legislations are used to assimilate minority groups. Fredrickson’s one way assimilation methods is apparently used in this story as the minorities are being accepted and employed to and by the dominant group, but they still play a subordinate role and are not allowed to fully enjoy the freedoms nor fulfill their American dream (Fredrickson, 335). As Stephen Cruz rises up through the corporate ladder slowly with his sheer hard work, he continues to discover that maybe the American dream he is working on is not meant for him. This is because he discovers that the dream and the relations between the minority-weak and dominant-powerful, are to the advantage of the later. This relation is described by Fredrickson as group separatism. Although the method of doing so might not be as direct as it may be perceived to be, through taking advantages of various legislations and policies to their (dominant group), can be seen as a way to separate the dominant and the minority. The dominant and powerful in America continue to get stronger and wealthy and the expense of the minority. This separates the two groups even further and no equally is presented.

Working and non-working students Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Working and non-working students - Essay Example The academic grades of students depend on the time spent on study sessions. Working students spend a considerable part of working. Thus, they have minimal time for class sessions and individual study (Berkel, 2010). Consequently, their grades suffer substantial deterioration, leading to lower grades. By contrast, the non-working counterparts dedicate the most time to study. Therefore, they are likely to register higher grades. Nonetheless, academics performance depends on the manner by which employment coincides with apathy in academics. Non-working students and working students both spend time in participation in co-curricular activities. The degree of participation, however, depends on the commitment of students. Thus, students who work are likely to engage in fewer co-curricular activities compared to their counterparts (Berkel, 2010). Socializing and entertainment depend on the relevant context. Working students spend minimal periods in socializing with non-working students, especially those who reside in college hostels (Berkel, 2010). However, they can associate with work mates on regular basis and event accord time for entertainment during weekends. The learning environment, by contrast, offers opportunities for students to mingle and participate in entertainment. In conclusion, working and working students portray diverse academic performance, co-curricular participation levels, and entertainment/socializing levels. Regardless of their variances, both sets of students make up the modern learning

One Night Stands and Regret Essay Example for Free

One Night Stands and Regret Essay Sex is considered a taboo up until we become college students. We have people whom want to remain chaste until marriage, we have people whom want to have experimental encounters with as many people as they can in college, and then there are people whom would only consider having sexual relations with their significant other. College parties are wild and it is guaranteed that at least 5 couples will end up hooking up at the end of the night. Most hook ups becomes one-night stands. If we were to ask those individuals if they regret their past encounters many would say yes because drugs or alcohol were involved. Drugs and and alcohol play an important role in sex. It is more likely for an intoxicated person to engage in sexual encounters than a sober person. In the magazine Psychology Today, there is an article called â€Å"If I Could do it All Over Again† that talks about the half-life of sex. In this article we are informed with statistics of men and women whom admit as to why they regret their past encounters. The article also explains scenarios of cases where sexual encounters break relationships and marriages. The biggest questioned raised by Matt Huston in his article is â€Å"When it comes to sexual misadventures, why do we feel so wrong about that which, in the heat of the moment, felt so right?† (Huston 39). Huston suggests that people feel thrill when having encounters rather than casual sex. What is there to regret of sex? Women who lose their virginity in a sexual encounter regret it because they feel like they lost their pureness to the wrong man. Women also regret having sexual encounters because they feel like they moved too fast to jump into sex. Men have other type of regrets. There are men who regret no jumping into bed and having sex with a random person. There are men who regret not being more sexually active in their youth. On a survey done to men and women, 55% of men regret not having sexual encounters. 48% of men regret not being sexually active at a young age. 43% of women regret moving too fast and jumping into sex. 41% of women regret  losing their virginity to the wrong person. Both men and women regret things differently. Women regret most of their past sexual encounters while men regret not having more sexual encounters. A very interesting study done in the Journal of Sex research, finds that regardless of sex, both genders that engage in sex with relative strangers may actually be more anxious and depressed. Another impactful statistic is that more than 70% of â€Å"college students who’d had a one-night stand had also experienced sexual regret† (39). This magazine article is very informative. It really doesn’t persuade people not to have sexual encounters; it just informs us about the people who regret sexual encounters. The magazine’s job is to inform us of a topic that really isn’t talked about on a daily basis. One can say that this magazine is sending out a subliminal message, which is to think before we engage in sexual encounters. The magazine believes that this generation has changed the idea of sex and has created a new a separate type of sex called sexual encounters. It also shows how many of these people show regret for past encounters. While shopping at Target I looked around and saw the books and magazines sections. I decided to buy a National Geographic magazine. The cover had an interesting hook; it basically said that Aliens weren’t far from earth. I bought the magazine and read the article, however, it didnt finish the article when I decided to return the magazine to the store. The article was very boring, the language wasnt clear to understand, and the text became boring the further I read. I went back to Target and looked around for another magazine and I decided to look at Psychology Today. My initial article to write my essay was on â€Å"Daydreams† and how those fantasies affect our futures. As I flipped through the magazine I came across the topic of sex. I read the title and I felt a relation to that topic. We’re college students and we know people whom participate in sexual encounters. Sexual encounters are something that is incredibly popular in college and especially at parties and clubs. It is interesting to know how both men and women feel after sexual encounters. Before I read this article I had no opinion on sexual encounters. I have a few friends whom participate in this type of acts. I always tell them to use protection and avoid stupid mistakes. I dont judge people, everyone makes mistakes and many of us keep making mistakes. After I read this article it hit me. I used to believe that when someone engages in sexual encounters they aren’t sensitive and dont have emotional feelings. But this magazine proved me wrong. Men and women do feel regret; their regret differs but they still feel regret based on a sexual encounter. I dont regret reading this article because it really caught my attention. I scanned the article and emailed it to some of my friends. I was really amazed with the research that explained that most of the people who participate in sexual encounters are anxious and depressed. It is rude to ask personal questions to people but I’d be very interested in knowing if they are anxious or depressed. If I ever feel the necessity of participating in a sexual encounter I will think back to this article and analyze the moment. Drugs and alcohol are not our friends and intoxication can make us do things we wouldnt do when sober. I would also think of the statistics of people whom regret the sexual encounters. This article has made me realize that there is a negative effect on sexual encounters, there is more to than just sex. Sex involves feelings. I think that every college student should read this article. Many people could prevent feeling regretful if they read an interesting article like this one. Works Cited Huston, Matt. If I Could Do It All Over Again. Psychology Today 1 Mar. 2014: 37-39. Print.

Pre Industrial England 1450-1750

Pre Industrial England 1450-1750 Pre-industrial England was a period that laid the foundation for the industrial revolution. Its too vast with numerous changes that may seem to contradict itself if confined to a single definition. In the early beginnings of the period, the ratio of population to land was low, with small rural communities heavily engaged in agriculture. Markets were imperfect, along with simple/sluggish technology mostly because, the pre-industrial man was unaccustomed to innovation or simply did not see the need for cost reducing innovations. The method of production was mostly labor intensive with little capital equipment if any at all. The description thus far is fitting for the period 1450-1650. During this period population growth fluctuated widely, mostly because of famines and diseases. It is worthy to note that the family was the foundation of the home economy and in aggregation the essence of the pre-industrialized economy. The family structure was the source of knowledge, wealth and in many cases legitimacy (particularly in the case of women). During this age, England was a pyramid of status. Ownership of land was the materialization of status and the quickest way to political leverage. This set in motion the incentive for development: the desire to acquire more land through the plouging back of profits into the purchase of land. It was during this time that the concept of RENT was developed. Though the industrial revolution started in Britain, during the period 1450-1650 England was behind its continental counterparts in almost every economic respect. Though population growth fluctuated, it had an upward trend; unfortunately the primitive economy was unable to absorb this surplus labor. Consequently, pre-industrial Britain was plagued with unemployment and underemployment. As if the latter was not bad enough, high mortality rates forced a young population to work and an overwhelming climate of beggars and vagabonds emerged. One interesting way the economy sought to absorb the excess labor was through the immigrations of this surplus to cities e.g. London. Europe had long been competing among itself for new markets and raw materials. This led to the beginning of colonialization and the discovery of new lands. Britain had long been and persisted to be an exporter of mostly raw materials. Before boats and new trading routes were invented and discovered, trading was problematic and capital accumulation was down right impossible. The medium of exchange was poorly defined and barter proved to be complex because of the double coincidence of wants. In the mid 15th century, there was an evident shift in the export of raw materials to manufactured goods, mostly the export of cloth. (refer to Fig 1 p 50) Very quickly cloth export accounted for 2/3 of all exports, most of which were destined for colonial territories and Low Countries. In light of this positive change, England was still largely a primary product producer, as such; they had a high import dependency on continental Europe. Through immigration, England was able to import new skills and techniques and in some cases capital. While England began to harness the power of this intake, there was a discovery of gold in South America. This made capital accumulation a little less difficult and further fueled trade. Though industrial jobs were seasonal because productive activities were predominantly dependant on the seasonality of crops, glimpses of urbanization could be seen. Artisans and craftsmen were the first manufacturers who often worked with just an apprentice; their capital formation was small, nevertheless, growing. The location of industries were dependent on the labor supply and occupations of all nature started to emerge and change continually as taste, fads and fashion change. In the book, the economy of England 1450-1750 by D.C. Coleman: England was described as having habit of à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦borrowing and improving, rather than inventingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Though homegrown inventions occurred, this habit was embedded in the English national trait. In light of this copy cat approach of the English, from the 17th to 18th century, English patents had increased drastically. Patents in this case are used as a proxy to represent the quantity of inventions/innovations. See fig. 2 p 154. In brief, English industry in the century from 1650 to 1750 can exhibit a variety of innovations, some of a radical nature in that they are represented injections of capital equipment which had the effect of raising productivity. Some involved a new use of power-driven machinery or opened up new possibilities therein, for example, in silk-throwing or cotton-spinning, some saw a replacement of one important input in the production process by another, for example, coal for charcoal, steam and atmospheric pressure for horse- or man power. The quote above taken from the economy of England 1450-1750 by D.C. Coleman, adequately sums up the importance and impact of the innovations taken place in England at the time. Pre-industrial England (Analysis) Why was the pre-industrial age the way it was? Or, how did it transform into the industrial revolution? I will seek to explain or find some bearings to answer these hard questions. My analysis will be confined to a few fundamental elements of capitalism: property rights, capital accumulation, profit motive, institutions, and level of technology and government intervention. It is known that low labor productivity, poor education, high fertility and mortality rates along with the dominance of physical over human capital plagued the pre-industrial period. The reverse is true when compared to modern societies, which is characterized by low fertility rates and extreme emphasize on human capital. What accounted for the spurts in population growth that forced the surplus labor to immigrate to the cities? With little education and sluggish technology there was roughly an average level of human capital. Earnings and benefit from investing in human capital were both low, and the typical agricultural laborer earned their maximum income at age 20.. Thus, parents would choose quantity as opposed to quality in child bearing; this sheds some light on the reasons population boom. High mortality rates also forced parents to reproduce at a high rate and began to prepare an army of labor that flourished during the industrial revolution. The number of patents issued (used as a proxy for capital accumulation) signals the rate of capital accumulation and developments in technology. Of course, these changes pale in comparison to modern standards but it laid a foundation that was essential to the industrial revolution. Reference was made in the overview regarding Britains culture of borrowing and improving, this also sought to cement the foundation of technological changes during this period. The pre-industrial mans desire for status and political accomplishment along with the desire to be favored by the crown, propelled the pre-industrial age. Granted, at a slow rate. This was mostly done through the conquering of new lands and meager changes (compared to modern standards) to productive activities. Imperfect markets were able to a limited extent however, to fuel the industrial mans profit motives. Nevertheless, this remains one of the few underlying elements of capitalism that never wavered or seems to fade. The pre-industrial age was preserved through the family structure, and the family structure was preserved through the ownership of lands. All the essential elements of capitalism were in existence and growing in every respect during this primitive age. True, it has evolved since, but that is not a demerit, rather, the reason why its able to survive all these years. At the heart of this period, the crown/state/government played a most vital role in industrial planning. Colonies were set up, trade agreements were made, and many accomplishments were made in the name of the crown. The crown was very much involved in Britains development. The states role and power had changed remarkably over the years, but we include it as an essential element of capitalism to illustrate the crucial role of government in jump starting an economy. Industrialization (750-1830) The industrial revolution was basically a fundamental change in the structure of Britains economy. It was the reallocation of resources away from agriculture. Britain being the first nation to become industrialized in the mid 18th century experienced rapid growth. These high growth rates would involve changes in every aspect of the economy. Britain rich iron, coal and reliable source of waterpower were essential to the industrial revolution. Colonies around the world supplied Britain with raw materials e.g. cotton and wheat and served as a market place for manufactured cloth. These colonies helped to stimulate the textile and iron industries, the wealth then generated by these two industries is what drove the industrial revolution. The steam engine was the greatest innovation of the industrial revolution because it became an instrument for applying basic innovations in many industries and transport. In the 1800s industries such as cotton spinning and iron was dependent on the steam engine. Landowning and farming wealth flowed to investment for improving land and transport while commercial wealth flowed to industry. Institutions created incentives and encourage innovation for entrepreneurs. The acceleration of industrial development was facilitated by the emergence of institutions such as financial systems, legal systems, and social institutions. Since the economy was growing at a steady pace, financial systems were needed to support this profound change: the established of the banking system in the 1690s. The banking system began to mobilize savings more widely after the 1750s. The bank of England, the London private bank and the country bankers made up the banking system. The problem with capital accumulation in the 18th century was one of establishing a tube by which capital could flow from the groups who were making the savings to those who really needed the credit. During the industrial revolution laws were enforced which required all land to be fenced at the expense of the owners. This caused many families to borrow from banks. Women and children made up 75% of the workers, this was because they were easily manipulated into accepting low wages which kept the cost of production low and profits high. Children were preferred since they had smaller hands; which was often needed to fit into parts of the machines. The laissez faire approach of the government allowed capitalism to flourish. There was little or no government regulations imposed upon factory policies. In the industrial ages the states role was basically to institutionalize social and economic forces and to provide security at home and abroad in which market forces would operate. Since they worked 18hrs per day they spent no real time together as a family, hence the industrial revolution contributed to the break down of the family unit. The living conditions were horrible because the cities became over crowded. Families lived in factory houses. These houses had no more than three to four rooms, more than one family then had to occupy a room. Other families who couldnt afford the rent of the factory houses lived in slums with little sanitation, as a result mortality rates were high (infant mortality rates were 50%) The legal system endorsed property rights and extended the concept of property to such assets as shares, bills of exchange, bank notes and patents. There was a pyramid concerned with land use. At the top there were the landowners, they comprised of temporal lords, gentlemen and freeholders (better sort and lesser). The lesser freeholders were the ones who owned and tilled their own land. They formed the middle class, the employing class who were the backbone of the agricultural economy. The others rented their land to the second group who where the land cultivators. These land cultivators formed a mixed group; which included small freeholders, owner-cultivators, the family-worked farm, the small holders and squatters. The third group, which was the base of the pyramid were the farm laborers; the proletariats. In the 18th century government began to intervene by implementing factory act, which aimed at securing the welfare of children. Industrial revolution Analysis This analysis will be based on the fundamental elements of capitalism: property rights, capital accumulation, profit motive, institutions, and level of technology and government intervention. It will answer why and how these elements changed/ developed during the industrial ages. Unlike the pre-industrial age capital accumulation wasnt as difficult. The emergence of foreign trade and the banking system made capital accumulation easier. Now the question is how and why these systems did emerge? Capital was accumulated through property ownership but also with the expansion of trade, that is: as trade increased, more money was demanded which was later provided for by gold and silver. The foundation of the bank of England in 1694 was part of a deal made between the government, (desperately short of finance in wartime) and the leading merchants and financers. Capital goods industries began to emerge mainly because of worldwide industrialization and the increased accumulation of capital through investment. This development led to mass production, and was responsible for the increase in British iron output during the 1830-1840 and continued to increase until the 1880s which also led to an increase in the employment of coalminers. The expansion of these industries changed most of the social problems that were present in the initial phase of industrialization: it gave unskilled workers better paid jobs, and improved working conditions which increased dramatically in the 1850s. The profit motive has been the driving force towards industrial capitalism. It encourages firms to operate more efficiently thus, promoting competition among rival firms. It served as the catalyst for production, distribution and consumption. Why did the level of technology change? Because of changing demand and the enlarged size of the markets promoted the development of new methods of production, often through innovation and adaptation of already existing technology. POST INDUSTRIALISATION The post industrialized period, is defined in this paper as that span of time in which Britains economy began to make the transition between what can be termed as Industrial Capitalism to Financial Capitalism. This simply means a decline in Britains manufacturing industry and growth of the financial sector. Why the manufacturing industry declined? To address this we need to consider many factors: the first important factor to is seen as the change in the power of the people that is the labor laws reforms and the electoral laws reforms. During the early and mid years of the industrialized period there was little power for the working class, they had no right to vote unless they owned property. They had no voice in the workplace, no way of expressing their displeasure and swift and harsh actions were taken against those who refused to obey the law.. Coming to the end of the industrial period and into the post, there were a number of reforms and acts introduced to change this fundamental problem within Britain. Firstly in 1871 trade unions were made legal, and they were allowed to strike. However it was not until 1875 that the legal act, Conspiracy and Protection of Property Act, was implemented to allow workers to peacefully strike at their place of work. But after terms of revolts in the working populace, into being came the Labor government party, and during their term (1906) they brought into being the Trade Disputes Act, which declared that unions could not be sued for damages done during a strike. In this respect, the power of the working class grew tremendously as compared to the earlier years of industrialization. But these Labor laws were not the only important reforms being made during this period to address the power of the people; in fact they went synonymously with the reforms being made to the electoral system. In the mid 18th century, The Great Reform Act (1832) gave vote to only male householders who held a certain amount of property. In time it was evident that this act was generally met with an outcry from the working population who paid taxes. This displeasure of the populace led to a Second Reform Act (1867) which allowed many of the working class men living in towns to cast a vote. However this system was still at fault because voting was done in the open and men were forced to stoop to pressures of their employers and landowners, that is- to vote in their interest. So upon recognition by the aforementioned, the labor government party introduce The Secret Ballot which allowed men to vote in seclusion, away from the pressures of their employers and land owners. But the second reform act was still deemed inadequate because it still failed to capture a decent proportion of the population, so came The Third Reform Act, in 1884. This new act now gave voting rights to adult male householders in Britain- which encompasses those living in the country areas. But with the exclusion of women, the system was still insufficient. After many womens rights movement there was a new act passed called the People Act of 1918 which gave voting rights to all men over the age of 21 and all women over the age of 30. This single act propelled the size of the electorate from 7.7 million to 21.8 million! This was not the end however, soon after the Equal Franchise Act of 1928 gave voting rights to all women over the age of 21 on the same terms the men had. And then finally, a new Representation of the People Act gave voting rights to everyone over the age of eighteen. The changes in the electoral and labor laws caused the emergence of a new phenomenon in Britain. The wants and demands of the people were now stronger and more politicians were more eager to meet them. Given the new found power of the populace, workers were now entitled to a larger share of the Gross Domestic Product (in future will be addressed as GDP). The general standard of living was now a principle that could no longer be ignored; the happiness of the entire Britains populace was now the centre focus of all politicians and no longer only the sole happiness of the entrepreneurs. As such some manufacturers found it unprofitable to keep on running when they can no longer access cheap labor, and governments found it necessary to implement many social safety nets to keep its populace happy. As stated before, addressing why the manufacturing industry declined we need to look at many factors, so far the populaces power has been addressed. The next important issue that needs attention is that of world trade. The British economy at the beginning of the industrialized period was well noted for some of the greatest inventions in the world. They were at one point in time even addressed as the workshop of the world. This advantage Britain had over the world market stemmed from their great inventions, namely; the stream engine, the railway train, the coke burning blast furnace, the power loom, the spinning jenny and the water frame. In time, the increasing globalization that took place in the latter years of the industrialized period caused her to lose this advantage. Aero planes and motorcars were made by the French, German and American inventors, thus, the comparative advantage Britain held significantly declined in the later years of its industrialized period. In the early years of industrialization Britain had rich coal and iron ore near the surface, but by the mid 19th century all the cheaply accumulated coal and iron were gone. Although there were deeper reserves, the advantage of the resource endowment significantly decreased. That being said, the British population growth began to significantly slow down in the late 19th century at that critical time when the American population began to grow rapidly. The power of British rivals increased rapidly, via their population growth and innovations as such Britains power in the world market was proportionately reduced and their manufacturing industries were left behind. . Britain was deemed as lucky to procure investors within its economy to help propel it during its industrial ages. Heading steep into the 20th century it was evident that an agglomeration of capital was invested in foreign industries, since the British investors saw it as more profitable to establish business overseas. It was a good investment for the British entrepreneurs but it also helped develop industries abroad, those industries to rival that of Britains. The invention of the railway and the telegraph system in the mid 19th century encouraged banks to expand and establish branches distances away from the main offices. Many people lost money when they invested into small banks, so government regulations were introduced to make it easier for larger banking groups to be formed. There was security in any particularly large bank. In mid 19th century The Bank Charter Act was introduced in order to reassure customers that their dollar invested in the bank was equivalent to gold sovereigns. This particular regulation had an enormous effect on bankers everywhere, the bigger banks became even more secure than the smaller ones, and as such mergers became ultimately inevitable. The Midland bank was a small bank founded in 1836 by Charles Greach. But by the late 20th century there were 200 branches of the Midland Bank stationed in London alone. It was clear; mergers were now a common thing within Britains financial industry. Britains financial sector continued to grow until it became a landmark within it one of the largest and richest cities in the world London. Britain had developed other major financial institutions such as the London Stock Exchange and The Commodity Market. This city had become known as the center of the worlds finances. Britains current account deficit at the time would have led to a crisis but the foreign investments Britain had secured were more than enough to cancel out the trade deficit. It is common knowledge that Britain had fought two world wars and surprisingly enough these foreign investments helped finance the wars. Britain had run up massive debt during the First World War, particularly with the United States of America, she had claimed to borrow an estimate of  £959 million. This was not the end however; even with the great lost in wealth (approximately a quarter of Britains wealth was lost) there was an introduction of liberal economic policies, which pushed Britains economy further down with slow growth rates and high unemployment. The national debt had increased 11 times what it used to be. Britain also had a streak of bad debts as she could not have expected repayment from loans given to Russia because of the communist takeover, nor could she expect the loans she lent to France because of the war damages France had incurred. To manage her empire Britain decided to implement her Ten Year Rule, it stated that she did not expect to fight another war for at least ten years. As such there were major defense budget cuts to make up for the debt owed. This impact as would be expected further restricted Britains foreign policies. So the impact of the First World War significantly influenced and restricted Britains empire. Continuing into the early 20th century, Britain felt the wraith of the American economy In the 1930s Britain experienced unemployment of 22.8%, but then a decrease to 13.9% in 1936 to 10% in 1938. But also, Traditional industries such as textiles and coal mining were severely affected by the depression. So it was evident that there was even further decline in the manufacturing sector during this period. There was also deflation in the economy at the 1930s as prices for food and rent fell by approximately 15%. Into the Second World War Britain plummeted, and it emerged in greater financial upheaval. It lost about an average of 12% of its productive capacity. By the 1940s British exports were in a decline by 35% as compared to 1935. Britain had almost exhausted its gold and dollar reserves on ammunitions, raw materials and some industrial equipment. Britain had even borrowed a further $31.4 billion dollars from the United States, as it was estimated near bankruptcy. So after the Second World War, Britain had lost support from the United States lend lease program, which was said to be the life support of Britain at that time. Now with its huge lost in wealth the two world wars began to take its toll on Britain. So after supporting Britain in the wars, countries demanded their independence, and decolonization started with Indias independence in 1947. Britain was also losing its old markets as commonwealth agreements were made to only do regional trade with local and regional entities. It is here Britain took a strong structural change from the manufacturing industry towards the services industry, in this regard many industrialized parts of Britain was left in a steady state. There were then packages with the intent of nationalization, as government tried to take hold of the economy. Devaluation of the pound was made, Britains economy still experienced low growth rates, and the new Labor government was unable to solve the problem. In came the famous Margaret Thatcher who implemented many economic reforms, leading to deregulation and privatization of major industries. Competition policy was the forefront of her ideology which replaced that of industrial policy. This resulted in high unemployment rates, but subsequently led to significant increases in growth rates. The British economy continued to experience rapid growth straight into the 1990s, with the exception for the recession experienced in the early quarters of the 1990s. Advances in technology continued to help the British economy and the conservatives kept rule until 1997, when they were taken over by Tony Blairs labor party. Blair introduced policies to reduce unemployment, gave power to the Bank of England to set interest rates and then introduced the minimum wage in Britain. But the Blair government decided to stick with the spending plans of the conservatives, and the economy kept on moving. Heading into the 21st century, the labor party increased taxes and borrowing, utilizing the money for public services. The growth rates in this era were kept constant, but the pound value fluctuated. The Britain kingdom was fairly well off, during the 21st century until it experienced the 2008 great recession, which was deemed as the worst recession since the Second World War. POST INDUSTRIALIZATION ANALYSIS As stated in the beginning, this period is defined as that in which Britains economy made a transition from a manufacturing based system to a financial based system. The aim of our paper is to understand how capitalism changed (transitioned) from the previous periods into this one. We have noted that this change in Britains economy was not the result of one particular factor; it was the agglomeration of many important fragments. It had begun with the simultaneous changes in the populace, capital accumulation and world trade. But it was more so propelled by the impacts of the two world wars and the many changes that stemmed from them. As compared to the previous two periods it was realized that the people of Britain had no say in any decisions being made for the country unless they had some significant amount of capital. Due to many constitutional reforms by the state this defining phenomenon of the populace had changed. The force behind these reforms came from pressures behind new founded labor institutions such as the trade unions. The need of these institutions, however, had originally stemmed from the pressure the industrialized period placed on its laborers. The world trade had laid upon Britain an enchantment of the profit motive. But guided by policy systems and development of financial institutions the profit motive inhibited growth in Britains domestic investment. This restriction led to a gradual decrease in Britains comparative advantage in the industrial world market. But although the profit motive had caused Britain to eventually export more than they import, it had changed Britains national accounting figures. So the profit motive had transformed Britains economy as it became more dependent on increases in invisible trade and not so much on the production and exports of goods. Capital accumulation and the profit motive however were not the sole signatories to the reforms in Britain, its necessary to make mention of the impact of technology on the system. At the beginning of the industrial period Britain had the advantage because they had the best technology in the world. But this did not stay as such, since given time, the major inventions in the world were not British. Some argue this was because technology booms are random and usually are only directly affected by significant investments in research and development. Britain had fought two world wars and it had emerged victorious but not without its economical burdens. After the first world war Britain had to restrict is international polices as it incurred major national debt. But after the Second World War, Britain was hanging on to America to keep functioning. It had lost nations due to demand for decolonization, and it lost world markets due to new trade restrictions from Caribbean countries. The promotion of deregulation, privatization, and competition polices let to a recovery of the economy. Monetary policies were transformed- allowing the Bank of England to set interest rates. These changes promoted massive growth of the British economy and the recovery of the system. It is also during this time frame that the government made decisions that define post industrialization today. The government set their famous safety nets in this period. They set: minimum wages, increase taxes and increase their public services. These safety nets are what vastly distinguish this period from previous ones, in the two previous ages there was no concern for the well being of the British populace as compared to the post industrial age. Britains Development via Industrialization A Critical Analysis As outlined in the heart of this paper Britain had traveled through three periods each leading successfully to the next. The paper seeks to illustrate how essential the fundamental elements of capitalism are to a nations development. It identifies the uniqueness of capitalism and its resilience in light of contradictory forces. There had been fierce debate over the roles of government and the effectiveness/fairness of protectionist policies in national development. Contrary to modern literature and advocates for free trade, Britains advantage in the industrial period (protection of infant industries) was maintained by strong protectionist measures and governments hand at each door step of the economy, (from the 17th to 18th centuries). The philosophy/ideology of mercantilism reigned for at least a hundred years: the belief that the source of a nations wealth is through the barring of imports whilst boosting exports. This gave Britains industries an advantage of a hundred years. Sectors were able to develop, change and learn from their mistakes. Most importantly, they were able to become efficient and specialist within their fie

Issues Related To Household Expenditures And Consumption Economics Essay

Issues Related To Household Expenditures And Consumption Economics Essay Introduction With economic and social progression of the nation the minimal basket of basic human needs which a society would expect for its citizen may be expected to keep expanding. These changes in the basic needs of the society may be affordable by the level of income. The level of income of the households ensures the minimum standard of living in the society. Household income and consumption expenditure are two direct monetary measures used in assessing the economic well-being of a population. However, consumption expenditure is pre ­ferred to income as it reflects long-term economic status of the household, particularly in low income countries (Friedman 1957). It is important to note however that expenditures are not similar with income, which may even be a better indicator of well-being, for various reasons. Among them is the possibility of consumption without expenditures at least within the same period. According to Atkinson, (1998), Expenditures are thus supposed to better reflect long-term or permanent income and are from this point of view considered to be a better measure of economic well-being and respective inequalities. Besides, in developing countries, income estimates are under-reported, drawn from multiple sources and vary across seasons. Though the consumption expenditure data are collected in many developing countries including India, the process is time-consuming, expensive and needs adjustment for household size, composition and for price level. Owing to these difficulties, the economic proxies (consumer durables, housing quality and household amenities) are collected to measure the economic sta ­tus of the households in both small-and large-scale population-based surveys. In the context of the growth performance during these two decades, economists and policymakers have become interested in the trends in regional inequality during this period. Rising regional inequality can create economic, social and political problems for any country. For the Indian economy, it has serious ramification for the continuation of the reform process. Hence, it is of utmost importance to understand the regional disparity in terms of consumption expenditure on consumer durables, housing quality and household amenities of the economy. Household expenditures as they result from budget limitations at the one hand and choices based on needs, demand, preferences etc. on the other may be regarded as manifestations of economic and social inequalities as well as cultural differences and social distinctions. Studying the patterns, disparities and determinants of household expenditures and their changes across time by making use of large scale population surveys thus seem to be promising in various respects. At a most general level it may provide insights into general consumption behaviour as a major source of human well-being and respective choices and restrictions. Investigating household expenditures and consumption patterns is considered to be key for the monitoring and explanation of inequalities and changes in material living standards and general welfare. Studying expenditures and consumption behaviour of households also seems to be an important and promising strategy to extend and supplement mainstream approaches of studying inequality as a key topic of sociological and economic research. As one would expect, research on household expenditures and consumption is much more common and popular among economists and looks back to a long tradition in economics (Stigler, 1954). This issue was also addressed by Houthakker (1957) as early as in the 1950s. The issues related to household expenditures and consumption have been disregarded in sociology and particularly empirical sociological research to a large degree, although family and household budget data frequently used for empirical study in the early days. Some observers and commentators of developments in sociological research thus conclude that consumption has been strongly neglected in sociological research (Rosenkranz and Schneider, 2000). Thus it is an area which needs greater attention to be paid. Although there is a long history of research on patterns of household expenditures and their changes across time, which goes back to the 19th century and the famous work by Ernst Engel and others, these questions have attracted surprisingly little attention in recent years. Blacklow and Ray, (2000) in their paper compare, using Australian unit record data, income and expenditure inequalities over the period 1975-76 to 1993-94. The study finds inconsistencies between the two inequality movements over much of this period. They, also, observe differences in the nature of income and consumption disparities. Bà ¶genhold and Fachinger, (2000) used repeated cross sectional data (RCS) in their empirical analysis which is based on the West German Income and Expenditure Survey (IES) in 1973, 1978, 1983, 1988 and 1993. The results revealed that the relationship between income and expenditure is given but it is weak. All in all, the social organisation of consumption is a research object in itself to obtain information about the living standard of individuals and households. Zaidi and Klass (2001) in their study on poverty and inequality in developed countries focus on income. This paper presents trends in consumption-based poverty and inequality in nine member countries of the European Union. During the 1980s, both poverty and inequality increased in Italy, France, the United Kingdom, Germany and Belgium, while decreases in both poverty and inequality are observed for Spain and Portugal. In Greece only inequality increased. Dhawan-Biswal, (2002) measure inequality in Canada with a comprehensive look at inequality trends in Atlantic Canada during the period 1969 to 19966. They use consumption expenditure as a measure of family well being and compare it with the income based measure of well being. Overall consumption inequality has continuously been lower in Atlantic Canada in comparison to the rest of Canada. Meyer and Sullivan, (2003) found in their study that it is fairly compelling that most households can more easily report income. They suggested that use consumption to supplement income in analyses of poverty whenever possible. Kalwij and Salverda, (2004) examine in detail the changes in household expenditures patterns, and in particular services related expenditures, in the Netherlands over the years 1979, 1989 and 1998. Using Engel curve estimations, these changes are related to changes in household demographics, employment, the budget and relative prices. They find that the dominating changes in demand are decreasing shares of expenditures on food and clothing and an increasing share of expenditures on housing. Decrease in food expenditures is for a large part explained by changes in household characteristics and the budget and about a third is a price effect. The increase in housing expenditures share is predominantly a price effect. Blow, Leicester and Oldfield (2004) examined how and why has the way in which the average British family spends its money changed over the past 25 years by using data from the UK FES between 1975 and 1999. It looks not only at broad changes in total spending, but also at how the division of expenditure between basics and non-basics and between durable goods, non-durable goods and services has altered over time. Johnson, Smeeding and Torrey (2005) used the period 1981 and 2001, to measure economic inequality among groups in the general population in the United States. Two measures of income and consumption are used to gauge relative well-being. Households with children are at a disadvantage, relative to the general population through both prisms. And households with children are the only group whose distribution of consumption was relatively more unequal than their distribution of disposable income throughout the 1981-2001 period studied. Comparison with the general population is a zero-sum game where households with children are relatively less well off, regardless of whether disposable income or consumption is used as the resource measure. Brewer, Goodman, and Leicester, (2006) in their study on Household spending in Britain by using 30 years of data from household surveys conclude that although there has been much recent emphasis on the advantages of measures of household expenditures in assessing household welfare in more academic circles, this has yet to work its way into the mainstream poverty measurement debate. This study shows the trends in poverty in Britain since the 1970s when household expenditure is used as a measure of financial well-being, rather than household income and investigates how using spending, rather than income, as a measure of well-being alters our view of who is poor. It examines the spending levels of the lowest-income households and analyses whether low-income pensioners spending on basic and non-basic items increased as a result of the large increases in entitlements to means-tested benefits since 1999. Zhang, Xie and Zhou, (2009) studied the disparity of consumption expenditure among rural areas in China by principle and method of cluster analysis. Results showed that income and consumption expenditure of 31 districts, cities and provinces could be divided into 5 classes of income and consumption. Shanghai City was the only city rated as the first-class areas with highest income and consumption. Bhattacharya and Mahalanobis (1967) had decomposed the Gini-coefficient and the standard deviation of logarithms for the year 1957-58 based on the household consumer expenditure survey data of India and found that one-quarter of the total inequality was being explained by between-state inequality and the remaining three-quarters was explained by the within-state inequality. Paul, (1988) studied the importance of household composition in the analysis of inequality measurement based on the National Sample Survey data (25th round). The results for rural Punjab reveal that the ranking of households by per equivalent adult consumption expenditure (PEAE) differs significantly from the ranking by per capita consumption expenditure (PCE). Many households classified as poor according to the criterion of PCE are not so classified by the criterion of PEAE. The exercise also reveals that the distribution of HCE, if not adjusted for household size and composition effects, gives biased measures of the extent of true inequality. Jain and Tendulkar (1989) in their paper deduces the analytical conditions for the movements in the same or in the opposite direction of the real and the nominal relative disparity in cereal consumption consequent upon the differential movements in the prices of cereals faced by the bottom and the top fractile groups of the population. These conditions are used for interpreting the movements in the real and the nominal relative disparity with reference to the Indian rural population over the period from 1953 to 1978. Datt and Ravallion, (1990) argued that the costs and the benefits of regional policies will tend to be borne widely within regions. Some benefits are likely to leak to the nonpoor in recipient regions, and some costs to the poor in donor regions. The paper suggests that the quantitative potential for alleviating national poverty through purely regional redistributive policies is small. Even assuming no political problems, the maximum impact on poverty is nomore than could be achieved simply by giving everyone a uniform (untargeted) windfall gain equal to about 1.5 percent of Indias mean consumption. And other considerations including increased migration to areas of higher benefits make it unlikely that the maximum impact will be attained in practice. Greater alleviation of poverty requires supplementary interventions that reach the poor within regions, by reducing the costs borne by the poor in donor regions and enhancing benefits to the poor in recipient regions. Mishra and Parikh (1992) in their paper measured household consumer expenditure inequalities in India by regions (states) and sectors (urban-rural) for the years 1977-78 and 1983 based on the National Sample Survey data. The results consistently indicate that the inequality within states contributes much more towards national inequality and within-sector inequality explains a large part of state level inequality. The inequality at state levels has shown a decline from 1977-78 to 1983 due to a better monsoon season in 1983, and anti-poverty programmes. Dubey and Gangopadhyay (1998) in their analytical report mention intra-state disparities by using NSSO consumption income data set. There are several states in India where the incidence of poverty across regions within a state is very high. They reported for seven regions of Madhya Pradesh, poverty incidence varied from one of the lowest in the country in the western region to one of the highest in the eastern region. Deaton and Dreze (2002) in their paper presents a new set of integrated poverty and inequality estimates for India and Indian states for 1987-88, 1993-94 and 1999-2000. The poverty estimates are broadly consistent with independent evidence on per capita expenditure, state domestic product and real agricultural wages. They show that poverty decline in the 1990s proceeded more or less in line with earlier trends. Regional disparities increased in the 1990s, with the southern and western regions doing much better than the northern and eastern regions. Economic inequality also increased within states, especially within urban areas, and between urban and rural areas. They also examine other development indicators, relating for instance to health and education. Most indicators have continued to improve in the nineties, but social progress has followed very diverse patterns, ranging from accelerated progress in some fields to slow down and even regression in others. Gaiha, Thapa, Imai and Kulkarni (2007) in their analysis of the 61st round of the NSS for 2004-05 confirms higher incidence and intensity of poverty among the STs and SCs, relative to non-ST/SC (Others). A decomposition of poverty gap suggests that a large part of the gap between the ST and Others is due to differences in returns or structural differences while among the SCs it is due largely to differences in characteristics or endowments. Whether these structural differences are a reflection of current discrimination is far from self-evident, given the important role of personal identity in determining performance. The policy design therefore cannot be limited to enhancing the endowments of the STs, SCs and other disadvantaged groups. Dubey (2009) examine the interstate disparity in five states in India i.e. Gujarat, Haryana, Kerala, Orissa and Punjab by using NSSO data of 50th round and 61st round. He used three indicators, consumption, inequality and incidence of poverty. Highest level of disparity emerged in Punjab followed by Gujarat and Kerala. Haryana has least disparities only marginally lower than that in Orissa. Singh (2010), in her study examined and analysed the disparities in level of living as measured by monthly per capita consumption expenditure across different income groups in various states in India based on 61st round survey of NSSO. Various measures like gini coefficient and rank for the states in rural and urban areas has been calculated. Disparities in MPCE across income groups are observed in Punjab. Srivastava and Mohanty (2010) in their study used data from the World Health Survey, India, 2003, covering a nationally representative sample of 10,750 households and 9,994 adults, examines the extent of agreement of monthly per capita consumption expenditure and economic proxies (combined with the wealth index) with the differentials in health estimates. Cain, Rana, Rhoda and Tandon, (2010) utilise household-level consumption expenditure data to examine the evolution of inequality during 1983-2004 in India. Various measures of inequality show that inequality levels were relatively stable during 1983-93, but increased during 1993-2004. The increases in inequality have not precluded reductions in poverty, however. They are also more of an urban phenomenon and can be accounted for by increases in returns to education in the urban sector to a considerable extent, especially among households that rely on income from education-intensive services and/or education-intensive occupations. Significance of the study The National Human Development Report 2001 for India (2002) reveals vast differences in human development and poverty between the States of India in 1981. The report notes that At the state level, there are wide disparities in the level of human development. (NHDR 2002, page 4). The report also notes that disparities amongst the States with respect to human poverty are quite striking. Socio-economic disparities across the regions and intra-regional disparities among different segments of the society have been the major plank for adopting planning process in India since independence. Even after its impressive performance in the field of science, technology and agriculture during the last three or four decades, a vast majority of Indians are facing the problems of poverty. They are denied even the basic needs of human life like food, safe drinking water, shelter, health, education etc., and are forced to live in a degraded social and physical environment. According to the 61st NSS, the proportion of persons living below poverty line was estimated at 27.5%3 (i.e., more than 315 million people). But, about one third of the population lives under the poverty line of $1 a day, and out of them three in four poor people live in rural areas. Thus, poverty in India is most widespread in the rural areas. Despite a vast range of poverty eradication programmes and several measures adopted in this regard, even after more than 60 years of Independence the situation is still very critical. In recent years, some significant changes have occurred in the poverty alleviation strategy. The Government of India has launched various programmes, such as NAREGA, MNAREGA, Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP), Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Area (DWCRA), Wage Employment Programme, National Rural Employment Programme, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana, etc., for the alleviation of poverty. Further, these programmes are now the responsibility of the local bodies (Panchayati Raj institutions) that are expected to improve their performance. But despite all the rigorous efforts, the desired results could not be achieved and considerable level of regional disparities remained in the society. The Structure Adjustment Programme of economic reform s since 1991 with stabilisation and deregulation policies as their central pieces seems to have further widened the regional disparities. Sen 2002 rightly observed that, the real concern of the so called anti-globalization protesters is surely not globalization per se, for these protests are amongst the most seem to stem in large part from the continuing deprivations and rising disparities in level of livings that they see in current period of globalization. Liberalisation had resulted in the rich becoming richer and the poor, poorer. No State actually got poorer in terms of falling per capita income but the interstate inequality certainly increased  [1]  . The seriousness of the emerging acute regional imbalances has not yet received the public attention it deserves. On the basis of above it can be understood that no significant study has been found in the area of disparity in household consumption expenditure for the period 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08 by using NSSO unit level data in India. The NSSO has been collecting data on consumption expenditure on a regular basis for over four decades. Along with other infor ­mation, it collects detailed information on food and non-food items in a reference period. While majority of the studies happen to be at macro level, this study is a more specific analysis in micro frame by using unit level data household survey conducted by NSSO in India. It is able to lay stress on certain vital issues that needed a more serious discussion. To large extent, the study can be regarded as pioneering one. Objective of the study: The major objectives of the study are as follows: To know the expenditure structures and consumption patterns To know the level of disparity in household consumer expenditure in Indian society. To know the level of disparity in household consumer expenditure in various regions (states) and sectors (urban-rural) in the society. To know the difference in levels and patterns of household consumer expenditure and across socio-economic groups i.e. caste, religion and family structure in the society. To know the difference in levels and patterns of food and non-food expenditure of across socio-economic groups i.e. caste, religion and family structure in the society. Methodology Data: Collecting consumption expenditure data is not new in India. The National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO) conducted an all-India survey of households on participation and expenditure in education, employment, unemployment, migration and consumer expenditure on a regular basis for over four decades. Surveys on consumer expenditure are being conducted quinquennially on a large sample of households from the 27th round (October 1972 September 1973) of NSS onwards. Additionally, the NSSO has conducted annual consumer expenditure surveys using a smaller sample of households from 1986-87 to 2007-08. In the present study data will be utilised from the three rounds of NSSO consumer expenditure survey i.e. 62, 63 and 64 round collected in the year 2005-06, 2006-07 and 2007-08 respectively .These three consumer expenditure surveys belongs to annual series. Data Analysis: In the present study the disparity in terms of consumer expenditure will be measured in the above mentioned three rounds of survey. Data provided by NSSO is in text document. For the analysis of these unit level data we will use statistical software (STATA). Disparity in terms of MPCE will be calculated for the state wise, region wise, caste, religion and family structure. Different statistical methods (like; descriptive statistics, range, standard deviation, coefficient of variation, Gini coefficient Lorenz curve, Theils index, etc.) will be utilised for measuring inequality and disparity. Graphical presentation of the results will be used for the easy understanding of the data. There are the criteria (Mean Independence, Population size independence, Symmetry, Pigou Dalton Transfer sensitivity  [2]  , Decomposability, Statistical Testability) that make a good measure of income inequality. Among the most widely used are the Theil indexes and the mean log deviation measure. Both belong to the family of generalized entropy. The formula is given by Where is the mean income per person (or expenditure per capita).The value of the measures vary between zero and infinity, with zero representing an equal distribution and higher values representing higher levels of inequality. The parameter in the GE class represents the weight given to distances between incomes at different parts of the income distribution, and can take any real value. For lower value of GE is more sensitive to changes in the lower tail of the distribution and for higher values GE is more sensitive to changes the affect the upper tail. The most common values of used are 0, 1, and 2. GE(1) is Theils T index and GE(0) is Theils L (sometimes refered to as the mean log deviation measures) are given by: Atkinson has proposed another class of inequality measures that are used from time to time. This class also has a weighting parameter Ɇº (which measures aversion to inequality). The Atkinson inequality measures defined as Decomposition of Income Inequality The issue of relating subgroup inequality levels to overall inequality has been discussed in the number of recent studies (Cowell 1980, Cowell and Kuga 1981, Bourguignon, 1979, Shorrocks 1980 and 1984, Shorrocks and Mukherjee, 1982, Das and Parikh 1982, Mishra and Parikh 1992). If the total inequality can be expressed as a function of sub-group inequality values, when the sub-groups are mutually exclusive and exhaustive, then a variety of ways is found to decompose the total inequality. The particular method of decomposition depends on the nature of the inequality index and the way in which it is decomposed since the decomposability of the indices differ from measure to measure. The most attractive type of decomposability has been additive decomposability. An index is additively decomposable if it can be neatly expressed as the sum of a between-group term and a within-group term. Conceptually, the between-group component can be defined as the value of the inequality index when all the within-group inequalities are assumed to be non-existent by a hypothetical assignment of the group average income to each member of the same group. The common inequality indicators mentioned above can be used to assess the major contributors to inequality, by different subgroups of the population and by region. For example, average income may vary from region to region, and this alone implies some inequality between groups. Moreover, incomes vary inside each region, adding a within-group component to total inequality. For policy purposes, it is useful to be able to decompose these sources of inequality: if most inequality is due to disparities across regions, for instance, then the focus of policy may need to be on regional economic development, with special attention to helping the poorer regions. More generally, household income is determined by household and personal characteristics, such as education, gender, and occupation, as well as geographic factors including urban and regional location. Some overall inequality is due to differences in such characteristics-this is the between-group component-and some occurs because there is inequality within each group, for instance, among people with a given level of education or in a given occupation. The generalized entropy (GE) class of indicators, including the Theil indexes, can be decomposed across these partitions in an additive way, but the Gini index cannot. To decompose Theils T index (that is, GE(1)), let Y be the total income of all N individuals in the sample, and be mean income. Likewise, Yj is the total income of a subgroup (for example, the urban population) with Nj members, and is the mean income of this subgroup. Using T to represent GE(1), Where is the value of GE(1) for subgroup j. Equation separate the inequality measure in to two components the first of which represents within group inequality while the second term measures the between-group inequality.

Scarlet Letter, Chillingworth A Man Of Evil :: essays research papers

Chillingworth: a Man of Evil   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the novel the Scarlet Letter, Hawthorne’s character Roger Chillingworth is supposed to represent the evil in the story. Hawthorne shows Chillingworth to be evil by several means. The physical description of Chillingworth shows him as an evil character. Statements are also made by Hawthorne referring to the inner content of Chillingworth that would lead the reader to feelings of his evilness. Another good way Hawthorne expresses that Chillingworth is evil is his name. There are many methods Hawthorne uses to demonstrate the evil qualities of Chillingworth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Chillingworth first enters the novel he is seen in a crowd. Hester notices him because he stands out. Chillingworth is dressed all in black. Black is a color often used to represent evil, other famous characters that demonstrate this are Captain Ahab and Darth Vader. Chillingworth is also said to have a hump on the left side of his back. The left or â€Å"sinister† side is used to represent evil. Chillingworth is also gnarled and ugly. Hawthorne writes characters to appear on the outside the way he wants the reader to see them on the inside. Chillingworth appears to be an ugly person on the outside therefore he must be one on the inside. Chillingworth is shown as a dark, evil, ugly character.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first thin one usually notices about the man in question is his eyes. These eyes have the power to read deep into a human soul. He can see whatever hangs heavy on the heart of the person and bring it to light; for example Chillingworth could use this to bring out a person’s sins. Hawthorne sees this act to be the greatest sin of all, making Chillingworth evil.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Chillingworth is a name that has a strong connotation of evil. The word chill has meanings similar to that of the word cold. Having the suffix worth makes his name mean of cold value. Cold is usually associated with evil. This can be seen in expressions like cold hearted. Chillingworth is a human being of cold value therefore he is a man of evil.